The increased number of cancer cases reported in the United States, and, indeed, around the world, is a major concern. Currently there are only a handful of treatments available for specific types of cancer, and these provide no absolute guarantee of success. In order to be most effective, these treatments require not only an early detection of the malignancy, but a reliable assessment of the severity of the malignancy.
Cancer of the cervix is one of the most common malignancies in women and remains a significant public health problem throughout the world. In the United States alone, invasive cervical cancer accounts for approximately 19% of all gynecological cancers. In 1996, it was estimated that there were 14,700 newly diagnosed cases and 4900 deaths attributed to this disease (American Cancer Society, Cancer Facts & Figures 1996, Atlanta, Ga.: American Cancer Society, 1996). In many developing countries, where mass screening programs are not widely available, the clinical problem is more serious. Worldwide, the number of new cases is estimated to be 471,000 with a four-year survival rate of only 40% (Munoz et al., 1989, Epidemiology of Cervical Cancer In: “Human Papillomavirus”, New York, Oxford Press, pp 9-39; National Institutes of Health, Consensus Development Conference Statement on Cervical Cancer, Apr. 1-3, 1996).
The precursor to cervical cancer is dysplasia, also known in the art as cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) or squamous intraepithelial lesions (SIL). While it is not understood how normal cells become transformed, the concept of a continuous spectrum of histopathological change from normal, stratified epithelium through CIN to invasive cancer has been widely accepted for many years. A large body of epidemiological and molecular biological evidence has established human papillomavirus (HPV) infection as a causative factor in cervical cancer. HPV is found in 85% or more of squamous cell invasive lesions, which represent the most common histologic type seen in cervical carcinoma. Additional cofactors have also been identified, including oncogenes that have been activated by point mutations and chromosomal translocations or deletions.
In light of this, cervical cancer remains a highly preventable form of cancer when pre-invasive lesions are detected early. Cytological examination of Papanicolaou-stained cervical smears (also referred to as Pap smears) is currently the principle method for detecting cervical cancer. Not surprisingly, the effectiveness of Pap smear screening varies depending not only upon the quality of the sample being used, but also upon subjective parameters that are inherent to the analysis. In addition, despite the historical success of the test, concerns have arisen regarding its ability to reliably predict the behavior of some pre-invasive lesions (Ostor et al., 1993, Int. J. Gynecol. Pathol. 12: 186-192; and Genest et al., 1993, Human Pathol. 24: 730-736).